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1- A Guide To Writing Essays For Politics - 2
Forms of Footnotes
The purpose of a footnote reference is to acknowledge the source of your material in such a way that the reader could check your quotation or citation. You must give enough information to enable the reader to locate the exact source of your material without too much trouble. Obviously it is not enough to give merely the title of a book, or merely the author's name. Similarly, if you are Affordable Essays referring to an article in a journal or a chapter in an edited collection, it is not enough to give the author's name and the title of the article; you must also identify the journal or the editors of the volume as well as the specific page number(s) on which the quoted passage can be found.
There are two main forms of referencing that are generally acceptable. Note that you should check individual Course Guides and your tutors to see if Affordable Essays one of the methods is preferred.
1. Harvard
The Harvard system requires the author's name together with year of publication and page reference to appear in brackets in the text. For example:
This point had been made earlier by another commentator [Stretton, 1980: 23] in a wide ranging discussion of the role…
If the author's name appears in the text then it should not be included in the note itself. For example:
In his account of the welfare state in Australia, Stretton [1980: Affordable Essays 23] makes a distinction between 'universalists' and 'selectivists'
Note that this form of citation refers the reader to the Bibliography where full bibliographic details of the work cited are available (for details of Bibliographies, see below). Some other considerations for use with the Harvard system:
o When you have cited more than one publication in the same year by the same author, the year of publication is followed by a letter. For example, "Stretton 1980c" would direct the reader to the third Affordable Essays work listed under Stretton from 1980 in the Bibliography.
o When there are more than two authors to be listed for a single publication it is possible to give just the first surname and then use "and others" or the Latin expression et al. to indicate that there are other authors. For example "Stretton et al.: 1980" would indicate that there are several authors - or editors - of the particular work being referred to. Note that et al. is italicised as Affordable Essays it is a non-English expression and al. has a full stop as it is an abbreviation.
o Try to avoid any discursive comments with this system of referencing. Beyond adding something as brief as "see also Stretton, 1980: 23" there should be no comments included as part of the reference.
2. Footnotes and Endnotes
This system of referencing consists of a sequence of numbers that take the reader to detailed references either as footnotes at the bottom of the page on which the number Affordable Essays appears or as endnotes gathered together as a single list at the end of the paper.
A footnote for the example cited above would thus look like this:
In his account of the welfare state in Australia, Stretton makes a distinction between 'universalists' and 'selectivists' …
In the first reference to a journal article you need to show:
o The author's (or authors') name (s)
o The name of the article in inverted commas
o The title of the journal (italicised)
o The volume and number details
o The date
o The page(s) Affordable Essays to which the reference refers
To cite a book, you will need:
o The author's name as on the title page.
o The title of the book without subtitles shown always in italics.
o The place, publisher and date of publication.
o The volume number (where appropriate).
o The page number (s)
Some other considerations for use with this system:
o If the next reference is also to Stretton you can use the abbreviation ibid. (a Latin term meaning 'in the same book, chapter, passage etc.'). Note that ibid. is italicised as Affordable Essays it is a non-English expression and has a full stop as it is an abbreviation. In the note below it has a capital I as it comes at the beginning of a sentence.
o If the next reference to the article by Stretton comes after a different citation the note would read thus. Note that a 'short title' has replaced the more detailed bibliographic information in the first reference. Some referencing systems use the Latin term op. cit. meaning 'in the work Affordable Essays already cited' after the author's name rather than a short title.
o Should you be using two more works by the same author, or if the second reference follows much later in your essay, you should give the name of the author followed by a short title, sufficient to identify the books, and then give the relevant page number.
This form of citation allows you to use the footnote or endnote to make some additional points or comments that would distract from the Affordable Essays argument if contained in the text.
3. Other points about citation to remember:
Using works cited in other sources (citing at second-hand).
You must always indicate if you are citing a source obtained from somewhere else (e.g. if you have not read the original work yourself but are using a quotation or reference that someone else has cited). For example, if you use a quote or argument from Anne Marie Smith's work that is cited in another book, your footnote should show this. Affordable Essays Simply reproducing the footnote or reference to Smith's writings that Bell and Binnie provide would be a serious misrepresentation, since it would imply that you had read the original work by Smith when you haven't. In other words, your references should always give an accurate account of your actual source.
Listing chapters in edited collections.
It is important that you cite the author and chapter title (in inverted commas) when using works from edited collections of writings. For example:
Mark Latham, "The Affordable Essays Third Way: An Outline " in Anthony Giddens ed. (2001) The Global Third Way Debate, Polity, Cambridge, p. 27.
Note that the footnote reference refers just to the page(s) cited. In the bibliography you should show the pages from start to finish of the chapter.
More generally, remember that the abbreviation of page is p. (never pg.) and the abbreviation of pages is pp. The titles of all published work should be italicised (or underlined if italic text is not available). Affordable Essays For journal articles it is the title of the journal that is italicised and for books it is the published title of the book. The name of the journal article or chapter in an edited collection appear in inverted commas. The same rule holds for the names of newspapers. The title is italicised (and is not enclosed in inverted commas) while the word "The" is dropped from the citation. Dates should always appear as day month year (in that order), Affordable Essays without any punctuation. A note to an article from a newspaper might appear thus:
On 12 March 1997 John Howard was quoted in the Age as saying "Australians were entitled to ask the young unemployed to perform some work … [for] their benefit".
In this quotation the series of three dots indicates that words have been omitted from the original source (use four dots if a whole sentence has been omitted) while the square brackets indicate that you have added a Affordable Essays word to assist in the clarity of the quotation or to make the grammar consistent with the rest of the sentence.
Citation of electronic sources
The forms of correct citation of electronic sources are still evolving. The minimum requires are that you show enough information to enable your readers to find exactly the document or web page that you are referring to. Given the transitory nature of web materials, it is often a good idea to print and keep a copy of Affordable Essays documents that you cite from in your essays. You can find some useful suggestions about citation of electronic sources at the following web sites:
o http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cup/cgos/idx_basic.html
o http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html
o http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/~africa/citation.html
In general, when you cite a web page or document you must include (wherever possible) the name of the author of the document, the title of the document, the web address at which you found the document and the date on which you viewed it. A standard bibliographic entry might look like this:
Dugdale, M., Affordable Essays 'Constitutional Convention, Community Discussions Report', http://www.constitutionalconvention.sa.gov.au/cmd_vol1.pdf, 9 April 2003.
To cite from an electronic journal, you need to show as much of the information about the reference as you would for a paper copy as well as the data base or source that you used to find the article. As with all web documents, you should show the date on which you viewed the page. A standard bibliographic entry might look like this:
Leigh, A., 'Trade liberalisation and the Australian Labor Affordable Essays Party', Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol 48 no 4, December 2002. Viewed through Expanded Academic Index, <http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/Adelaide> 9 April 2003.
Bibliography
You must include a full Bibliography at the end of every essay. Some tutors prefer a bibliography that consists only of works actually cited in the essay. Others want to see a listing of all the materials that you have found useful in the production of your essay (not just those that are directly cited). If you include Affordable Essays any references that are not directly cited in the essay you should split the bibliography into two sections (one listing works cited, the second showing other works consulted). This will ensure that you provide a bibliography that is acceptable to all tutors. Regardless of the format you choose, you must give full bibliographic / publication details for everything that appears in the bibliography. All works should be correctly cited.
The exact layout (and section headings) of the Bibliography will vary Affordable Essays according to the nature of the materials that you have dealt with and the form of citation you have chosen. If you have used the Harvard system, the Bibliography should be a single consolidated list sorted alphabetically by author (or where no author, by commissioning institution) and then by the order of publication if a single author (or group of authors) has more than one text cited in the Bibliography. When you have used either footnotes or endnotes, the Bibliography Affordable Essays can be sorted into sections (though see comments on works cited and consulted above). The most common division is into Primary and Secondary sources, but it is possible - depending upon the nature of the sources used - to have a wide range of sections. These can include, for example, official papers, journal articles, books, newspapers, unpublished materials etc. Within each section the references are sorted alphabetically by author. When the Bibliography is relatively short (say less than 12 references) Affordable Essays it might equally be sorted simply by author surname.
Downer, A., (1994) 'The Things that Matter', Address to the National Press Club, 5 September 1994.
Dugdale, M., 'Constitutional Convention, Community Discussions Report', http://www.constitutionalconvention.sa.gov.au/cmd_vol1.pdf, 9 April 2003.
Giddens, A. (1998) The Third Way. The Renewal of Social Democracy. Cambridge: Polity.
Howard, J., (1997) Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, Representatives, 10 February 1997, p. 466.
Hutton, W., (1995) The State We're In, Jonathon Cape, London
Marshall, T.H., (1981) 'The Right to Welfare' in T.H. Marshall, The Right to Welfare Affordable Essays and Other Essays, Heinemann, London, pp. 83-94.
Thatcher, M. (1993) Downing Street Years. London: Harper Collins.
Warhurst, J. "The Australian Federal Election of 10 November 2001", Australian Journal of Political Science, vol. 37, no. 1, pp.153-160.
Special Forms & Abbreviations
Some abbreviations, commonly found in footnotes and bibliographies, often puzzle students meeting them for the first time. The following notes are intended to be explanatory, not to encourage the use of the forms listed, since similar English alternatives exist.
• ff. - following (pages):
o Normally Affordable Essays used in a footnote to indicate that a particular matter is referred to on several successive pages, e.g. Hutton, W., (1995) The State We're In, Jonathon Cape, London, p.63 ff.
• passim - in various parts of a book etc.:
o Normally used to indicate that a particular matter is dealt with in several places in a work, e.g. Hutton, W., (1995) The State We're In, Jonathon Cape, London, passim.
• qv. [quod vide] - which see:
o Used to refer one to another item for Affordable Essays additional information, and most commonly found in encyclopaedias and other works of reference e.g. Gulf Oil erected its main installations at the port of Menal-Ahmadi (q.v.)"
• sic - thus or so:
o Used within brackets, in order to show that a quoted passage, often containing some error, is precisely reproduced, e.g. "The outcome of the 2001 Australian election was greatly influenced by the reporting of events associated with the ship MV Tampered [sic]".
• supra - above:
o Normally used in a footnote to indicate Affordable Essays that further reference to a particular matter will be found at an earlier point).
• vide - see, or refer to:
o Used to direct attention to a particular page, book, etc. e.g. vide, Hutton, W., (1995) The State We're In, Jonathon Cape, London, p. 125).
Helpful References
There are many style guides and related books dedicated to giving advice on essay writing and guidance on presentation. See, for example:
o Clanchy, J. and Ballard, B., Essay Writing for students: a guide for Arts and Social Science Affordable Essays Students, (1981) Longman Cheshire, Melbourne.
o Harris, R.S. and McDougall, R.L., The Undergraduate Essay, (1964) University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
o Cooper, C.W. and Robins, E.J., The Term Paper, (1947) Stanford University Press, Stanford.
o Germov, J., Get Great marks for Your Essays, (1996) Allen and Unwin, St Leonards, NSW.
o Anderson, J. and Poole, M., Assignment and Thesis Writing, (1994) John Wiley and Sons, Milton, Qld.
o Lovell, David W. and Moore Rhonda D., Essay writing and style guide for politics and the social sciences, (1956) Australasian Political Studies Affordable Essays Association, Canberra.
o Samson, Joanne and Radloff Alex, In writing: a guide to writing effectively at the tertiary level, (c1992) Paradigm Press, Perth.
o Thomas, Francis-Noel and Turner Mark, Clear and simple as the truth: writing classic prose, (c1994) Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
o Osland, Dianne et al. Writing in Australia: a composition course for tertiary students (1991), Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Sydney.
o Slade, Carole et al., Form and style: research papers, reports, theses, (c1994) Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.
o Booth, Wayne C. and Colomb, Joseph M.W., The craft Affordable Essays of research (1995) University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
o York Press, The York Press style manual for writing & typing of scholarly works and research papers, (1978) York Press,Fredericton, N.B.
o Gibaldi, Joseph, MLA style manual and guide to scholarly publishing, (1998) Modern Language Association of America, New York.
Lastly, you might find the Australian Journal of Political Science style guide useful. A copy of this can be found at:
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