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Essay Writing Guide
Introduction
It is essential to read this guide carefully before you select an essay topic or begin your research. Most students find it difficult to write essays and this guide is designed to help plan your research and structure your essay. Even if you are experienced in writing essays, this guide is still indispensable, since it outlines the formal requirements for art theory essays. Different University subjects, courses or disciplines do not necessarily follow the same bibliographic format or requirements for citation of sources.
If you did well with your school essay writing do not assume that you will automatically succeed with tertiary writing. Some students find that the gap between school essays and academic essays is more like a chasm: since the emphasis in tertiary writing shifts substantially from the simple presentation of facts to interpretation and critical analysis. Also, it is not uncommon to read student essays from secondary school level in which material is taken, unacknowledged, directly from text books, the Internet or teacher notes. Such practice is unacceptable in tertiary writing and is regarded as plagiarism which is a serious transgression in academic History Essays writing. There will be more on plagiarism later in this guide.
The Essay Form
An essay is a written exposition or elaboration of your view on a particular topic, subject or issue. Within a stipulated length, usually 1200 to 3500 words, your essay will consist of a clear statement of what you think about a particular issue or topic followed by a logical argument supported by strong, well documented evidence. The essay is also an important learning process and assessment instrument, since when you begin your research on a selected topic you often have no idea of what your view or argument will be. The process of research, planning and writing of your essay helps you shape, clarify and finally expound your thinking or analysis. Many notes and several drafts of your essay might have to be written before your argument or perspective on a particular topic falls into place. This is why it is imperative to allocate enough time in your study programme for writing preliminary drafts. Students often lament that they discovered what they really wanted to say at the end of a hastily written essay, History Essays when they had no time for a rewrite.
Sources used in essay writing
The information and evidence used in formulating an argument, in essay form, will come from texts (mostly books and journals), electronic sources and actual works of art. When writing about art the most important focus of your analysis should be original art objects or exhibits; but any judgements you make about works of art should be informed by what has been written about them, and your interpretation should be measured against the existing research in your field of interest. Therefore wide reading is essential in any art theory essay. However, choose your source material intelligently, many "coffee-table" style art books contain misleading generalisations and factual information that is dated or incorrect. Also, school textbooks (such as Gardner's Art Through the Ages) are poor source material for most tertiary writing. As with encyclopaedia articles, they may be useful in initially surveying a topic but you will need to consult more specific secondary sources. Most of the information you access on the Internet using generic search engines and sites such as Google, Yahoo or Alta Vista will fall History Essays into the encyclopaedic category. Only very refined searching of specialist databases will allow you to access high quality and primary material. There will be more later on how to access this material via the Internet. (On using the Internet for Research see this short online essay)
The diagram and description below should help explain the difference between primary, secondary and tertiary sources of information.
Most Internet sources
Encyclopaedia entries
Art survey books
ART OBJECTS
Catalogues
Letters
Documents
Monographs on artists
Stylistic Analysis
Journal articles
The information contained in the inner circle is constantly changing and expanding with continuing research, while the outer circle changes more slowly. This is exemplified in the results of the Rembrandt Research Project (RRP.) on the works by Rembrandt. Conducted from the late 1960s, by a team of Dutch scholars, this research found that many Rembrandt paintings, including famous works such as The Man in the Golden Helmet and The Polish Rider, were wrongly attributed to him. Specialist art journals kept art historians up to date with progress during the thirty years of research but it was not until the publication of three volumes from 1982 - 1989, detailing the preliminary History Essays findings, that museums started to change the labels on their Rembrandt paintings and book publishers took heed of the new evidence and attributions. Naturally, some art museums have doggedly held on to the original attribution of their work to Rembrandt (reattribution is regarded as demotion in this case, and certainly devalues the work in terms of cold economic worth). The RRP is ongoing, and as you might expect, galleries are quick to publish a press release when the RRP examination of one of their works confirms it is a genuine Rembrandt. (See, for example this press release from the National Gallery in Ireland) Also, amazingly, even today some general art surveys and encyclopaedic entries on Rembrandt have yet to show the full results of the Dutch Rembrandt Project. What about the Internet? There is at least one private, essentially anonymous, site outlining information on the RRP but giving no specific findings, and when I visited this site in Jan. 2003 there was no update noted since 1996. In fact, the most recent discussion of the RRP to be found by a search of the Web in Jan. History Essays 2003, was dated 1999. All of which demonstrates the potential for Internet sites to be the most current secondary sources and the reality that they are usually dated tertiary ones. At the risk of labouring the issue, all of this can be fitted to the above diagram with the following summary. The primary material in the inner circle is made up of paintings by Rembrandt and his workshop or circle, as well as letters and contemporary official documents. The circle of investigation around these is made up of the art scholars and scientists in Amsterdam and their interpretations of this primary evidence is published as secondary analysis along with the published debate that results from their findings. Generalized reports on the work of these scholars or use of the results of their work makes up the outer circle. If you were researching one of the Rembrandt's in the NGV in Melbourne and wanted to be sure of the latest opinion on its authenticity you could not rely on a Web search unless it was in one of the specialised databases that contain the latest art history journal History Essays articles.
In research on any artist or works, as you move away from the centre of the diagram, in search of information, you multiply the number of authors involved. The resulting second-hand or third-hand information is obviously less reliable. Different opinions and interpretations should, of course, be sought but do not allow them to cloud accurate analysis of the primary data.
An added difficulty in selecting sources is created by the fact that guarded generalisations made in secondary sources, close to the inner circle, become more emphatic and oversimplified in sources further out. For example, the artist Claude Monet (1840-1926) produced thousands of paintings in his long career. He used various techniques to paint many different subjects, most with specific appeal to a developing, comfortable and mainly urban middle class. Also, significantly, he marketed his work through an increasingly complex private dealer system. Yet he is described in an encyclopaedia entry as a radical "Impressionist" - a term which is itself highly problematic.
While it is not expected in first and second year writing that you will necessarily consult primary sources, whenever possible you should sight works History Essays of art in the original to make unqualified analysis of them.
Use books, articles or Web resources recommended by your lecturers as the starting point for your reading list or bibliography. The most valuable secondary source will often be the most recent publication on your topic of interest, especially if it contains a comprehensive bibliography. You must also establish if there are any recognised authorities writing in your field of study and review their publications.
If the subject you are to research is completely new to you, familiarise yourself with the visual material or works of art you will be discussing. In writing about the art of an Australian artist such as Margaret Preston, for example, a visit to the Newcastle Region Art Gallery and the Art Gallery of New South Wales to view examples of her work is as important as seeking out references and reproductions in the library.
Although the Huxley and Auchmuty Libraries have one of the most comprehensive collections of art books, magazines and related material in New South Wales, there is always competition for valuable references and you must begin your research early to ensure History Essays availability before the last minute rush.
Stages in essay writing
Select a topic most relevant to your studio interests. Usually topics or questions are of equal difficulty, however sometimes lecturers set one or two more demanding or challenging questions to extend experienced students. Check with your lecturer if you have any doubts about the compatibility of your selection to your educational background and interests.
STEP 1
Compile a working bibliography of books, articles, catalogues, videos, films and any other sources you think will be relevant to your chosen topic. To do this, use the subject index catalogue in the library and consult the Art Index, and other periodical indices, that are also held in the Library. If you are reading this on a computer connected to the University of Newcastle network, you can go directly to the NEWCAT index for books, catalogues videos and films. You can also access the Art Index database which includes articles in 280 art journals. However, this will only give you references forward from January 1989 to last month and you will also need to use the CD-ROM computer format which lists articles published since History Essays 1984. ( If you are unsure about use of the CD-ROM machine, in the Library, ask at the reference desk.) For a search of articles published prior to 1984 you will have to consult the print version of the Art Index which is bound in volumes from 1929 forward.
Using the Library Database List you will find direct access to electronic databases that give you articles with full text and images. The following are the most useful.
Expanded Academic ASAP Int'l Ed. which has over three million articles (from 1980 - 2003) and includes journals such as Art News, Art in America, Artforum, the Art Bulletin and Art in Australia (abstracts only). Unfortunately, the original illustrations or images are often omitted or degraded in the Expanded Academic online versions, although more recently this seems to be improving. This is not the case with the Project Muse (John Hopkins Press) database which includes good quality black and white images and also contains several electronic journals which are exclusively published on the Web. Depending on your research topic you will also find other useful databases such as IDEAL (now part History Essays of Science Direct).
The Library subscribes to Britannica Online - which is of course the definitive encyclopaedic source for general information. The Library also subscribes to the electronic Grove Dictionary of Art, although its coverage is fairly patchy.
As well, the Library subscribes to Oxford Reference Online this not only includes the Oxford Dictionary but most importantly gives access to Oxford Dictionary of Art, Concise Oxford Dictionary of Artand Artists , Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms as well as A Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Art. A word or phrase query will automatically search across all these and many other Oxford reference works. What is more, a full-citation is shown below each entry ready to be clipped and pasted into your notes.
You will find links to the above and many more databases on the Library Journal and Reference Database site.
Your lecturer will generally direct you to others, if they are relevant to your topic.
For general Internet searches take care using generic search sites such as Google, Yahoo, etc. Instead, first go to the Art Theory Resources site and use the links that are included there, as these have be History Essays checked for quality. (The exception to this is the case where you may be searching for a reproduction of a particular painting or print. The search engine Google now has an image search feature which is very powerful or comprehensive and certainly the quickest way to find a reproduction.)
Particularly useful under the Art Theory Resources listings are links to electronic journals and home sites for print journals - which often have the contents of the latest edition.
When you access Internet sites take great care to carefully document the address and full particulars for correct citation of any information you collect. Always record the date of any connection you make as this must be included in your citation. The Internet is now a major resource but still a supplement to print sources and the most up-to-date relevant art information is still to be found in text based journals or periodicals. For this reason, it would be expected to find at least four or five references to art magazine or journal articles, as well as references to books and other sources, in a successful first-year essay.
At this stage, History Essays when you have completed your working bibliography, ask your lecturer if he or she will check if you have missed any major source on your topic.
STEP 2
Read/view the sources you have chosen and make notes to use in the formulation of your essay. When making notes, or photocopies, of information you might use in your assignment, always add the bibliographical details of the source, including page numbers. You will need this if you decide to quote the information in your essay. When taking notes from books and articles be sure to distinguish between your own musings/words and material you transcribe as this will avoid any possible problems with inadvertent plagiarism when you come to write the essay. When reading articles online or material from Web sites be sure to record all the relevant source information you will later need for citation, including the date of access. While searching for information, avoid clipping blocks of text from screen and pasting it into your word-processor unless you add all details of the source including the URL. Otherwise, this material will be useless when it comes to writing your essay. History Essays It is always safest to save the entire file you are reading in a directory on your computer for later access when formulating your argument. Also note, that if a site has no designated author, be it institution, corporation, individual or magazine title, do not use the material.
It is usual to spend about 60% of your allocated time on Steps 1 and 2.
STEP 3
When you are familiar with all the major facts and issues that are pertinent to your topic, decide what argument you will adopt in your essay. Next draft a plan of your essay by writing short notes on the content and order of each paragraph. Usually this is followed by the writing of a full first draft.
Your first paragraph will state your main argument regarding the topic. The body of the essay will expand and defend the argument stated in the opening paragraph. Information you have collected will be used to support your arguments and your final paragraph will round off your discussion with a suitable conclusion.
STEP 4
Write your final draft, add your bibliography, check all footnotes and reread. Most important of all, History Essays carefully proofread before submission. Be sure your presentation follows the stipulated format. Make and retain a photocopy of your essay. A clean copy may be needed later for reassessment by another marker in cases of appeal or disputed results.
There are a number of books in the Library that considerably expand the above information. Probably the best introductory text is: J Clanchy and B Ballard Essay Writing for Students, Melbourne 1991 [Huxley Call No.: 808.042 clan 1991 c.3. There is also a 1981 edition] A more comprehensive source is: Douglas Bate and Peter Sharpe, Student Writer's Handbook: How to write better essays, Marrickville, 1990. [Huxley: 808.042/B9] Also useful is J Anderson et al, Thesis and Assignment Writing, Sydney 1980 (pp 3-18), and K Betts and A Seitz Writing Essays in the Social Sciences, Melbourne 1986. For information on advanced research writing refer to K Howard and J A Sharpe The Management of a Student Research Project London 1983. On the Internet you will find a simple and fairly sensible introduction to writing Art History essays in: Belton, R. J. Art History: a preliminary handbook, 1996, Online, Available History Essays Netscape: http://www.ouc.bc.ca/fiar/hndbkhom.html (verified 30 Jan. 2003).
Plagiarism- description and policy
Plagiarism is the unacknowledged copying of the ideas or words of other writers or authors. Plagiarism in essays will make them unacceptable for assessment. This refers to both direct transcription and paraphrasing other material (putting it into your own words).
Most students understand that to copy another student's assignment and present it as your own work is fraudulent behaviour and such practice is the most obvious and serious breach of academic integrity. When this form of plagiarism is detected it results in automatic failure of the subject for the student involved and possible disciplinary action by the Faculty or University.
You may be aware that there are now many so called "Cheat" sites on the Internet offering (usually at a price) completed essays on countless topics. It is unlikely you will find an example that precisely answers a given question, but if you find a similiar topic and access to read it is free, by all means do so. You may pick up some tips on structure or useful pointers to sources. However, never clip any of the History Essays information to paste into your essay. Not only is this plagiarism but it is relatively easy to detect through a Web search using your text as a search string.
However, most breaches of plagiarism occur because: firstly, students have not developed the writing skills to sufficiently wean themselves from the phrases, style and words used in the sources found in their Library research and, secondly, they present the ideas and information taken from Library sources without acknowledging the original author.
There are art historical facts, which are generally known and agreed upon. That the Museum of Modern Art in New York was founded by Alfred Barr in 1929, is an example and would not need acknowledgement in an essay. However, it should be obvious that you would not write in an essay that Monet earned 24,800 francs in 1873 from the sale of his paintings without telling the reader how you came by such precise and little known information. We might assume you had access to Monet's account books and that you spent considerable time tabulating this figure. Equally so, if you claim that Monet earned ten times History Essays the average annual income for Paris in 1873, you would need to show the origin of this calculation.
When you present any precise or contentious evidence in you essay you must add a full reference or citation that will accurately take the reader to your source so that they can check the veracity of your information or judge the quality of your source. Both Monet examples above are taken from the same source (Paul Tucker Monet at Argenteuil, New Haven, 1982, n33, pp. 194/5) and by citing this book in your footnotes and adding it to your bibliography you also acknowledge that your work is dependent on the intellectual effort of others. In this case, Paul Tucker.
Presumably, if you used the factual evidence or data on Monet's income in an essay it would be to draw some conclusion about his attitude to selling his art or his relationship to dealers and buyers; or, to put Monet's work in the context of the developing economic and social forces associated with modernity. This is where problems can occur with plagiarism since Tucker has explored these issues in his book. Any History Essays direct quotes or phrases taken from Tucker would naturally be referenced. In addition, if your conclusions are in any way dependent on, or, in any way parallel, the views or ideas of Tucker you must acknowledge this in footnotes. To give a specific example, here is a direct quote from Tucker's book:
Monet was no economist, but the subjects he painted were drawn from the progressive world. And the people we know who bought his paintings, like the opera singer Faure, the banker Hecht, or the department store owner Hoschede, were immersed in it. Monet was able to profit from many people's patronage, for he made a considerable amount of money during these years, far more than earlier historians ever imagined. He was doing so well that two years after he left Paris for Argenteuil - a flight to the suburbs that was typical of his time - he was able to move to a bigger, more expensive house. [p.3]
After reading your notes you might write a sentence in your essay such as: " Monet was part of the modern world in the sense that he was not History Essays the mythological artist starving in a garret but very much a comfortable member of the middle-class, living in the suburbs. " Clearly, this is dependent on the above quotation and the source would need to be acknowledged. You would do this by adding a number at the end of the sentence which would refer to a footnote which might look like this:
This has been demonstrated by Paul Tucker, in Monet at Argenteuil, New Haven, 1982 (see esp. p.3)
Alternatively, you may remodel the sentence to read: "As Tucker has shown, Monet was part of the modern world in the sense that he was not the mythological artist starving in a garret but very much a comfortable member of the middle-class, living in the suburbs." In which case, the footnote would take this format:
Paul Tucker, Monet at Argenteuil, New Haven, 1982, esp. 3
It is a relatively easy process to learn and follow the formats for citation of references, which are listed later in this guide, although it takes some experience to understand the degree of referencing or acknowledgement necessary in academic writing. To help you understand the requirements, the History Essays first essay you write in first-year Art Theory is treated, in part, as a diagnostic test of your understanding of the rigorous requirements of academic writing and research. Your lecturer will carefully highlight any unacceptable examples of plagiarism in your semester one first-year essay and detail remedial strategies. Put bluntly, this means that this is the only essay you submit in which breaches of minor plagiarism will not make the essay inadmissible for a passing grade. Second-year and third-year essays which contain any form of plagiarism will be unacceptable for assessment. This will be regardless of whether you completed first-year studies in this University or not. Lecturers are very familiar with the primary and secondary sources in this subject and generally can easily detect plagiarised passages. However, sometimes dramatic variation in style, vocabulary or expression make plagiarism obvious, even though the source may not be precisely locatable. In detecting plagiarism, a lecturer's professional judgement may not be infallible and all students are advised to retain their working notes and drafts for every essay they write. These offer some evidential proof that your essay is of your own History Essays making and should only be discarded after the marked essay has been returned. Also The University of Newcastle has now established a software plagiarism detection system called Turnitin. Your course lecturer will advise if this program will be used in your particular course of study and she or he may therefore require you to also submit an electronic version of your essay. Follow the link below for the general University Policy on Plagiarism.
For more comprehensive information and advice on avoiding plagiarism visit the Newcastle University Web-site
University Policy on Plagiarism.
OTHER IMPORTANT POINTS TO NOTE WHEN WRITING ART THEORY ESSAYS
1. It is in order to use short, relevant, direct quotations from other authors to expand or support points you make. However these should be used sparingly, and of course must be acknowledged. Remember your essay or argument should present a clear structure not a compilation of quotations you have collected. Generally, no more than two or three brief quotations would be used in an essay of average length (2000 words).
2. Direct quotations are indented or enclosed in quotation marks and the footnote added at the end of the quote. History Essays To acknowledge the source of a phrase, add the footnote at the end of the sentence in which it occurs. If you paraphrase a passage of material, again just add a footnote at the end of the last sentence. It may sometimes be necessary to make it clear as to the extent of your borrowing. For example, your footnote might begin with: "Much of the content of this paragraph is taken from...." or "This phrase is used by...." or "These few sentences summarise the view put forward by..." or "I have developed this idea from...". As a general rule there is no need for such additions; just cite the source.
3. Do not use note form. An essay should be a coherent, logical piece of analytical prose.
4. Avoid the use of personal pronouns such as "I feel....." or, "in my opinion". They are not necessary, since it is understood that the essay is an expression of your views.
5. Do not use vague or ill-informed generalisations such as "all art is about beauty". Take care with the use of art historical terms such as Impressionism, Realism or Postmodernism. When History Essays such terms are capitalised this generally signifies a reference to their art historical meaning. For example, an Impressionist painting would refer to a work by Monet or one of his contemporaries, whereas an impressionistic painting might refer to any painting in the Impressionist manner or style. It is safest to always define what the terms mean in the context of your essay.
6. Generally colloquialisms have no place in formal writing. Words and expressions such as dodgy, daggy, nerd, nerdy, do-gooder, ratbag or con-artist would not normally be used, except for dramatic effect.
7. Your essay must be written as near as possible to the stipulated length. Plus or minus divergence of over 200 words may be penalised.
8. Footnotes or endnotes are not added to the word count in the length of your essay. [note: some wordprocessing programs, such as WordPerfect, include footnotes and endnotes when listing word count, others, such as Word, do not.]
9. In formal essay writing, the convention is to refer to artists by their surname; although use the full name when you first mention an artist in your essay. It is also usual to History Essays add birth/death dates in brackets after the first full name reference. However do this only for artists not generally known or those who may be confused with another, with a similar name.
10. Underline or use italics for the titles of paintings and other works of art you mention in your essay (alternatively, you may use bold for titles, but be consistent). Also take particular care to give enough information to identify the particular work by adding location and date. Titles of works of art are also given maximal capitalisation, eg: The Endless Enigma.
11. Discussion between students working on the same topic is useful but do not exchange notes or bibliography with another student. Such collaboration will make both essays unacceptable for assessment, as an essay must be the expression of your own ideas and effort.
12.Non-sexist or gender-inclusive language should be used in all your writing and while still accepted, the generic "he" should be avoided. Sexist language is language that discriminates against women, usually by exclusion. All writers should avoid sexist language since many readers find it offensive if not insidiously disempowering.
The following information is a History Essays summary (with additions) from Chapter 8 of the fourth edition of the Style Manual published by the Australian Government Publication Service, Canberra, (4th edition) 1988 pp 111-127. Further elaboration is given in the 5th edition of the Style Manual, 1994 pp.126 - 135; and the 6th edition of the Style Manual, 2002 pp 58 - 60.
Sexism in published texts
When you need to quote from a published text, especially from another era, and you encounter sexist language there are a number of approaches you can take.
The Australian Style Manual (1988 p113) recommends the following:
• The words in question can be paraphrased, not quoted directly, thus avoiding the sexist expression.
• The word sic, enclosed in square brackets, can be inserted immediately after the sexist expression. (sic meaning "thus used")
• In some cases where it is clear that the language is not the work of the author the expression can be left intact.
Avoid the use of man in the generic sense
The word man should be limited to reference to male human beings. When man is used in a generic sense to refer to male and female human beings it not only History Essays creates confusion but implies the absence or invisibility of women. In the interests of clarity and equality replace the generic man with one of the following:
humans, humanity, human beings, humankind, man and woman, women and men, people, individuals, human race
For compound words where man is used as a prefix or suffix here are alternative words and phrases:
mankind
manhood (generic sense)
spokesman
chairman humanity, humankind, people
adulthood
spokesperson, advocate, intermediary
chair
draftsman (generic)
craftsman draftsperson
craftsperson, artisan, craftworker, technician
Man as a verb
to man the desk to staff the desk
In idioms and phrases
the man in the street
one-man show the average person, ordinary people
solo exhibition, one-person show
In art, master (as a noun or verb) and old master are common terms associated with maleness. As Griselda Pollock pointed out some time ago, old mistress is hardly a suitable replacement description for a female artist who has gained great skill or competency in her craft.
Mastery, when used as a qualifying noun, can be easily replaced with expertise or competence. Old master can usually be avoided or qualified with phrases such as so called old master. Masterpiece can be replaced with major work.
Sculptor and patron are the correct inclusive terms for male and History Essays female. Do not use sculptress or patroness.
Because there is no sex-indefinite pronouns in English, use the following guide to replace the generic he, him, his.
he/she, him/her, his/her
he or she, him or her, his or her
reverse order also possible: she or he, she/he.
13. Non-discriminatory language should also be used in relation to descriptions of particular racial, ethnic or national groups or individuals. This is especially important when discussing the art of the Aboriginal peoples of Australia or the art of Torres Strait Islander people. See the Australian Government Style Manual, 5th edition, 1994 (pp. 137 - 140) or Style Manual, 6th edition, 2002 (pp. 56 - 58) for specific advice on non-discriminatory language for portrayal of Australian Aboriginal people or usage in naming individuals. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) recommends the inclusive collective reference to Indigenous Australians as 'Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' and states a preference for 'Aboriginal(s)' rather than 'Aborigine(s).' Also 'Indigenous' is always capitalised when it refers to the original inhabitants of Australia. It should be noted that 'Koori' is not a synonym for 'Aboriginal' but is only used to describe History Essays Aboriginal groups from New South Wales. Aboriginal groups from other areas may prefer to identify themselves in local terms - see p. 57 Style Manual, 6th edition, 2002. Many Aboriginal people find it offensive to see words such as corroboree or dreamtime used in a jocular or dismissive context. Avoid such usage for these and other words or phrases (such as gone walkabout) which might demean or stereotype Australian Aboriginal people.
For advice on the portrayal of ethnolinguistic minorities in Australia consult (pp. 140 - 142) in the 5th edition of the Style Manual, or (pp.56 - 58) in the 6th edition.
14. Write all numbers below one hundred as words and use figures for numbers greater than one hundred. The exception is when writing precise sums of money or dimensions of works of art whatever their value (that is, below or above one hundred). For example: ten years and $10. Naturally, all precise dates are written as figures, 1845 not eighteen forty five. Twentieth century is preferable to 20th century and the two words are always hyphenated when modifying a noun, as in: twentieth-century art. In other History Essays words, compound adjectives appearing with century are always hyphenated. This also applies when early or late is added to the compound, as in: early-nineteenth-century painting.
15. Although conventions are still developing, here is the recommended form for terms associated with the World Wide Web. Capitalise Web and Internet and leave compounds of these open (without hyphens) Web site, although hyphenate when the compound is an adjective Web-site designer. Write online as one word without a hyphen and there is no need to capitalise e-mail. For computer programs use this spelling and reserve programmes for all other uses. Web Co-ordinator is preferable to Web Master. Be careful not to add a full stop at the end of an e-mail address or Web URL (Universal Resource Locator). If such an address ends a sentence or citation it is safest to enclose the e-mail address or URL in brackets thus <http://www.example.au/index.html>. Also, all recent browsers will recognize a URL without the http:// on the address so you can safely drop this, and begin a citation or reference to a Web site with www.
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